The Early Church Is the Catholic Church

 Ecclesiology

You are kindly invited to explore and discover
the sacred mysteries of the Catholic faith.

“See that ye all follow the bishop, even as Christ Jesus does the Father, and the
presbytery as ye would the apostles. Do ye also reverence the deacons, as those that carry
out the appointment of God. Let no man do anything connected with the Church without
the bishop. Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the
bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let
the multitude also be; by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the
bishop shall appear, there let the multitude also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there
is the Catholic Church.”
St. Ignatius of Antioch,
Epistle to the Smyrneans, 8:2
(c. A.D. 110)

“But [it has, on the other hand, been shown], that the preaching of the Church is
everywhere consistent, and continues in an even course, and receives testimony from the
prophets, the apostles, and all the disciples…For in the Church,” it is said, “God hath set
apostles, prophets, teachers,’ and all the other means through which the Spirit works; of
which all those are not partakers who do not join themselves to the Church, but defraud
themselves of life through their perverse opinions and infamous behaviour. For where the
Church is, there is the Spirit of God; and where the Spirit of God is, there is the Church,
and every kind of grace; but the Spirit is truth.”
St. Irenaeus of Lyons,
Against Heresies, 3:24
(A.D. 180)

“The spouse of Christ cannot be adulterous; she is uncorrupted and pure. She knows one
home; she guards with chaste modesty the sanctity of one couch. She keeps us for God.
She appoints the sons whom she has born for the kingdom. Whoever is separated from the
Church and is joined to an adulteress, is separated from the promises of the Church; nor
can he who forsakes the Church of Christ attain to the rewards of Christ. He is a stranger;
he is profane; he is an enemy. He can no longer have God for his Father, who has not the
Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was outside the ark of Noah, then he
also may escape who shall be outside of the Church. The Lord warns, saying, ‘He who is
not with me is against me, and he who gathereth not with me scattereth.’
St. Cyprian of Carthage,
On Unity, 6
(A.D. 251)

“But in learning the Faith and in professing it, acquire and keep that only, which is now
delivered to thee by the Church, and which has been built up strongly out of all the
Scriptures….Take heed then, brethren, and hold fast the traditions which ye now receive,
and write them and the table of your heart.”
St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
Catechetical Lectures, 5:12
(A.D. 350)

“But beyond these [Scriptural] sayings, let us look at the very tradition,
teaching and faith of the Catholic Church from the beginning,
which the Lord gave, the Apostles preached, and the Fathers kept.”
St. Athanasius of Alexandria,
Four Letters to Serapion of Thmuis, 1:28
(A.D. 360)

“Inasmuch, I repeat, as this is the case, we believe also in the Holy Church, [intending
thereby] assuredly the Catholic. For both heretics and schismatics style their
congregations’ churches. But heretics, in holding false opinions regarding God, do injury to
the faith itself; while schismatics, on the other hand, in wicked separations break off from
brotherly charity, although they may believe just what we believe. Wherefore neither do the
heretics belong to the Church catholic, which loves God; nor do the schismatics form a part
of the same.”
St. Augustine of Hippo,
On Faith and Creed, 10:21
(A.D. 393)

“Philip the presbyter and legate of the Apostolic See said: There is no doubt, and in fact
it has been known in all ages, that the holy and most blessed Peter, prince and head of the
Apostles, pillar of the faith, and foundation of the Catholic Church, received the keys of
the kingdom from our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour and Redeemer of the human race,
and that to him was given the power of loosing and binding sins: who down even to to-day
and forever both lives and judges in his successors.”
Council of Ephesus, Session III (A.D. 431)

“Wherefore the most holy and blessed Leo, archbishop of the great and elder Rome,
through us, and through this present most holy synod together with the thrice blessed and
all-glorious Peter the Apostle, who is the rock and foundation of the Catholic Church, and
the foundation of the orthodox faith, hath stripped him of the episcopate, and hath
alienated from him all hieratic worthiness. Therefore let this most holy and great synod
sentence the before mentioned Dioscorus to the canonical penalties.”
Council of Chalcedon, Session III
(A.D. 451)

But what about you?” he asked. “Who do you say I am?” Simon Peter answered, “You
are the Messiah, the Son of the living God.” Jesus replied, “Blessed are you, Simon
son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in
heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the
gates of Hades will not overcome it.”
Matthew 16, 15-18

Pax vobiscum

Upon This Rock

 PAPAL PRIMACY & INFALLIBILITY

He said to them, “But who do you say that I am?” Simon Peter said in reply, “You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God.” Jesus said to him in reply, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah. For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my heavenly Father. And so I say to you, you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.”
Matthew 16, 16-19

Papal infallibility is a significant doctrine in Roman Catholic theology, asserting that the pope, when acting as the supreme leader of the Church and under extraordinary circumstances, is incapable of error in his teachings on matters of faith and morals. This doctrine is rooted in the belief that Jesus entrusted the Church with a mission to teach, which must adhere faithfully to His teachings. The Holy Spirit plays a crucial role in this process, ensuring that the Church's teachings are always absolutely true and can be accepted without any doubt. 

The charism of papal infallibility ensures that the Church's teachings reflect those of Christ without distortion. It's important to note that while papal infallibility is related to the Church's enduring nature, or indefectibility, the two concepts are distinct. Indefectibility refers to the assurance that the grace promised by Jesus will preserve the Church's faith until the end of time, as it awaits the glorious return of the Lord. 

The definition of the First Vatican Council (1869-70) states the conditions under which the pope has spoken infallibly or ex-cathedra (“from his chair” of supreme teacher): 1. “The Roman pontiff speaks;” 2. “he speaks ex-cathedra;” 3. “defines the following;” 4. “that doctrine concerning faith and morals;” 5. “must be held by the whole Church.” We have one instance of a pope speaking ex cathedra with infallibility in the Apostolic Constitution Benedictus Deus of Pope Benedict XII in A.D. 1336. 

1 (The Roman Pontiff speaks)

“The Apostolic Constitution, Benedictus Deus, of Pope Benedict Xll”

2 (Speaks ex-cathedra)

“with apostolic authority”

3 (We pronounce, declare, and define)

“define the following”

4 (That doctrine concerning faith and morals)

Pope Benedict declares ex-cathedra that each soul will be particularly judged immediately after death

according to his or her deeds before the general day of judgment.

5 (Must be held by the whole church)

“which is to remain in force forever”

Papal infallibility is defined as a dogma of the Catholic Church, established by the First Vatican Council. This doctrine asserts that, in accordance with Jesus’ promise to Peter, the Pope is safeguarded by the Holy Spirit from making doctrinal errors when he exercises his universal primacy of authority, particularly in his Extraordinary Magisterium. This means that when the Pope teaches on matters of faith and morals, he is protected from error, ensuring that the teachings align with the original doctrine given to the apostolic church and preserved within the deposit of faith, which includes both Scripture and Tradition. 

The pope isn’t only the visible head of the Church but also the head of the episcopal college. When Jesus founded the Twelve, “he constituted them in the form of a college or permanent assembly, at the head of which he placed Peter, chosen from among them.” Just as Peter and the Apostles constitute a single apostolic college, likewise the Roman Pontiff (Peter’s apostolic successor) and the bishops in the entire world (successors of the rest of the apostles) are associated with each other in a bond of unity (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 880).

Jesus made Simon, whom he would name Peter, the “rock” of his Church. He gave Peter the “keys” of his Church and established him as shepherd of the entire flock. The office of “binding and loosing” was given to Peter and assigned to the College of Apostles, united to its head (CCC, 881). Bishop Vincent Ferrier Gassier explains the importance of this prerogative that our Lord conferred on Peter. “The purpose of this prerogative is to preserve truth in the Church. The special exercise of this prerogative occurs when there arise somewhere in the Church scandals against the faith, i.e., dissensions and heresies that the bishops of the individual churches or even gathered together in the provincial council are unable to repress so that they are forced to appeal to the Apostolic See (in Rome) regarding the case, or even the bishops themselves are infected by the sad strain of error” (The Gift of Infallibility: Ignatius Press, 2008). This pastoral office of Peter and the other apostles belongs to the Church’s foundation. It is continued by the bishops united to the Pope under his universal primacy of authority.

The bishop of Rome, known as the pope in a universal capacity, serves as Peter’s successor in a universal sense. He acts as the “perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful” (CCC, 882). As the Vicar of Christ and the pastor of the entire Church, the Roman Pontiff possesses “full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered” (CCC, 883).

The College of Bishops, however, does not hold the authority to teach infallibly unless it is united with the Pope, who is the head of the entire Church, encompassing both clergy and laity. While the College of Bishops has “supreme and full authority over the universal Church,” this power cannot be exercised independently of the Roman Pontiff. The College formally exercises its authority in an ecumenical council. Still, it is essential to note that “there never is an ecumenical council which is not confirmed or at least recognized as such by Peter’s successor” (CCC, 884). During an ecumenical council, when the College of Bishops defines matters of faith and morals in unity with the pope, this collective action is referred to as the Universal Magisterium.

Since the Roman Pontiff is believed to be graced with the charism of infallibility in virtue of being the apostolic successor of Peter, we must turn to the New Testament to see whether Jesus had, in fact, established the apostle as the visible head of the Church and bestowed on him the gift of infallibility. To make this determination, we must examine the meaning of the words “rock” and “keys” and the power to “bind and loose” while, in the meantime, uncovering the ancient Jewish roots of Peter’s unique office that lends it credibility and establishes its validity.

Scriptural support for the preeminence of Peter in the nascent church and his unique role as head shepherd is found in the fact that his name is mentioned no less than 191 times in the New Testament. Next in line is the beloved disciple John, who is mentioned 48 times. However, if this isn’t strong enough evidence, we can turn to the list of the apostles in the Gospel of Matthew to support the Church’s tradition. We read in Chapter 2, Verse 1: “The names of the twelve apostles are these: First, Simon called Peter.” The Greek word for “First” that describes Peter is protos (πρῶτος). Methodist theologian and professor James H. Strong defines the word “before, principal, most important” (Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible: Hendrickson, 2009, Entry 4413, Protos).

In other words, among the apostles, Peter is “first and foremost” or “primary first.” Peter’s description as being “first” is not “an arbitrary numerical detail” or a “chronological indicator” of when Peter became an apostle. We see in John 1:41 that Peter’s brother, Andrew, was the first one Jesus chose to be an apostle of His. Peter’s name appears first in the list of apostles because he is the “primary” apostle within the entire college (John Salza, The Biblical Basis for the Papacy: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 2007). 

Other New Testament writers use protos to describe the preeminence of individuals. Luke uses protos to describe Publius as “the chief (protos) man on the island” (Acts 28:7). He was the chief magistrate of the island of Melita and a man of authority. Paul also describes himself as a sinner “of whom I am the chief (protos). Other translations have Paul humbly describe himself as the “foremost” sinner (1 Tim 1:15). In the Septuagint (Old Testament), protos is also used as a title of pre-eminence. The sacred author describes the “chief (protos) singers appointed, to praise with canticles, and give thanks to God” (2 Ezdra 12:45; 2 Neh in the RSV-CE). So, Peter is described as “the first” of the apostles because he is the “chief” or “foremost” among them. He holds a pre-eminent place in the apostolic college (The Biblical Basis for the Papacy).

The relationship between Jesus and Peter during Jesus' three-year public ministry highlights Peter's significant role among the apostles. Notably, Peter is the first apostle to acknowledge Christ's divinity. In Matthew 16:16-17, Jesus tells Peter that this profound understanding comes from a special revelation by God the Father. This moment is pivotal, as it establishes Peter as the foundation upon which Jesus builds His Church, with the other apostles serving as essential supports and Jesus Himself as the cornerstone (Mt 16:18). 

Moreover, the keys of authority over the Church—a symbol of governance over both clergy and laity—are entrusted uniquely to Peter (Mt 16:19). An illustrative incident occurs when a tax collector approaches Peter regarding the payment of the temple tax for Jesus. This scenario emphasizes Peter's recognized role as Jesus' spokesperson (Mt 17:24-25). This concept aligns with the Catholic understanding of the pope as the vicar of Christ, who speaks on behalf of Jesus, especially in ex-cathedra declarations. Furthermore, in Matthew 17:26-27, Jesus instructs Peter to find a coin in a fish's mouth to pay both His and Peter's tax, underscoring Peter's function as Jesus' representative on earth.

In various biblical accounts, Peter often assumes a leadership role among the apostles. For instance, in Matthew 18:21, he asks Jesus to clarify the rules regarding forgiveness, demonstrating his willingness to seek understanding on behalf of the group. Additionally, in Matthew 19:27 and Mark 10:28, Peter speaks for all the apostles when he acknowledges their decision to leave everything behind to follow Jesus. During critical moments, such as in the Garden of Gethsemane at the beginning of Jesus' passion, Peter's leadership is highlighted further. While Jesus prays, Peter and the other apostles are found asleep; however, it is Peter whom Jesus directly questions about his inability to stay awake (Mk 14:37). This interaction underscores Peter's special accountability as a leader among the apostles, as he is expected to be vigilant and set a proper example for the others during such pivotal times.

In the Gospel of Luke, an interesting moment occurs when Jesus chooses to preach from Peter’s boat (Lk 5:3). In biblical typology, a boat often symbolizes the Church, much like Noah’s Ark in the Old Testament. This specific instance suggests that Jesus provides guidance to His Church through His appointed leader, Peter. It is noteworthy that Jesus instructs Peter, the foremost of the apostles, to cast his net once more into the water, which results in a miraculous catch of fish (Lk 5:4, 10). This event underscores Peter's role as the chief "fisher of men." The significant catch highlights that without Jesus, Peter would not have been able to achieve such extraordinary results, especially considering the timing when fish were typically not active. Consequently, Peter’s authority is rooted in Jesus, who is the Head of the Church, and the effectiveness of Peter's leadership is dependent on the grace provided by Jesus. 

In the Gospel, Peter frequently assumes the role of spokesperson for the apostles, particularly evident in moments such as when Jesus asks who touched his garment (Lk 8:45). This pattern suggests that the other apostles may have viewed Peter as their leader, leading them to refrain from speaking first out of respect or a sense of hierarchy. Peter not only takes the initiative to respond but also represents the collective voice of the apostles. This is further illustrated during the Transfiguration, where he is the first apostle to ascend the mountain (Lk 9:28, 33) and when he seeks clarification regarding a parable (Lk 12:41). 

In the Gospel of Luke (22:31-32), Jesus prays explicitly for Peter, emphasizing the importance of his faith and instructing him to strengthen the other apostles in their moments of doubt. Peter's role as a leader in the apostolic community is crucial; his faith must remain strong to maintain the unity and integrity of the group. This highlights the greater responsibility that Peter holds in ensuring that the other apostles remain steadfast in their beliefs and in communion with him. Furthermore, the grace that Jesus grants Peter is intended to protect him from conveying false teachings. This same grace is also available to the other apostles, but it is contingent upon Peter's engagement and collaboration in their ministry.

In the Gospel of John, during the Last Supper, Jesus takes the significant step of washing Peter’s feet, exemplifying the role of a servant leader (Jn 13:6-9). While Peter might have chosen to wash the feet of the other apostles in imitation of Jesus, this action is not recorded in Scripture. Notably, Jesus questions Peter in front of the other apostles, asking if he loves Him more than they do (Jn 21:15), highlighting Peter's designated role as the visible head of the apostolic Church. Peter's primary allegiance is to Christ, reflecting a commitment without compromise. Before Jesus ascends to the Father, He tasks Peter with the responsibility to “feed [his] lambs” and “feed [his] sheep” (Jn 21:15-17), indicating that these lambs and sheep represent all people, including the apostles themselves. Thus, Peter, as the first pope, is entrusted with the vital duty of nurturing the faith among both clergy and laity on a universal scale.

Peter holds a distinctive role as "the first" of the apostles, which is highlighted in Matthew 16:13-19. In this passage, Simon Peter demonstrates a remarkable ability to receive and articulate divine knowledge from God, a key aspect of Christological understanding. This ability reflects what the Catholic Church defines as the doctrine of papal infallibility. It is essential to note that the pope is not inherently infallible; instead, this infallibility is believed to operate through the guidance of the Holy Spirit, thereby enhancing the accuracy of his thoughts. When Simon makes his first papal infallible decree, he is named Peter, derived from the Greek word "Petros." This renaming is significant, as 'Cephas' (or Kepha) is a Greek transliteration of the Aramaic term for "rock," further emphasized in several biblical references, including John 1:42 and 1 Corinthians 1:12. 

The Greek text is a translation of Jesus’ words, which were actually spoken in Aramaic. Aramaic had only one word for "rock," kepha, which explains why Peter is often called Cephas in the Bible. The word kepha in Aramaic means “huge rock.” The Aramaic word for “little stone” is evna, and Peter isn’t called “Evna.” In Aramaic, Jesus said, “You are Peter (Kepha), and upon this rock (kepha) I will build my Church.” The metaphor works well in Aramaic, where nouns are neither feminine nor masculine. 

D. A. Carson explains, “… the words petros and petra were synonyms in first-century Greek. They meant “small stone” and “large rock” in some ancient Greek poetry, centuries before the time of Christ, but that distinction had disappeared from the language by the time Matthew’s Gospel was rendered in Greek. The difference in meaning can only be found in Attic Greek, but the New Testament was written in Koine Greek—an entirely different dialect. In Koine Greek, both petros and petra simply meant “rock.” If Jesus had wanted to call Simon a small stone, the Greek lithos would have been used” ( The Expositor’s Bible Commentary [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984], Frank E. Gaebelein, ed., 8:368).

In the kingdom of David, kings delegated their authority to a chief steward, who governed in the king's absence. This delegation of power was formally recognized through the presentation of the keys to the kingdom, symbolizing the steward's role as the "keeper of the keys." The chief steward, also known as a vizier or vicar, held a position of great authority, second only to the king, overseeing the palace and having the power to pass judgment on the king’s subjects. In his mission to restore the kingdom of David, Jesus similarly appointed a chief steward, granting him the keys to what would become the visible kingdom on Earth—the Church. He designated Peter as the leader over "the house of God," as referenced in biblical passages such as 2 Corinthians 5:1, 1 Timothy 3:15, and 1 Peter 4:15. This appointment empowered Peter to rule and govern God’s household following Jesus’ ascension into heaven, reflecting the governance structure established in the kingdom of David. 

The Hebrew Scriptures mention “keys” only once, in the context of the authority of the Davidic king’s chief steward. Around 715 B.C., Hezekiah was the king of the Southern Kingdom, and Shebna was his chief steward or vicar. Through the prophet Isaiah, God reveals that He will remove Shebna from his office and replace him with Eliakim, to whom he will give the “key to the house of David.”

This is what the Lord, the Lord Almighty, says: Go, speak to this steward, to Shebna the palace administrator: What are you doing here and who gave you permission to cut out a grave for yourself here, hewing your grave on the height and chiseling your resting place in the rock? “Beware, the Lord is about to take firm hold of you and hurl you away, you mighty man. He will roll you up tightly like a ball and throw you into a large country. There you will die, and there the chariots you were so proud of will become a disgrace to your master’s house. I will depose you from your office. In the biblical narrative, God bestows upon Eliakim the key to the house of David, a position that was previously held by Shebna. This role is characterized by its transferability, allowing for the appointment of successors. By possessing the key to David's kingdom, Eliakim is granted the authority to make decisions that cannot be undone; what he opens remains open, and what he closes remains closed. This denotes that his judgments are final and serve as a representation of the king's will in the king's absence. Eliakim is described as a "father" to Israel, signifying his essential role in guiding and overseeing the nation. This scenario reflects the belief that just as God actively governed in the Old Dispensation, He continues to supervise the administration of His kingdom in the New Dispensation.

“In that day I will summon my servant, Eliakim son of Hilkiah. I will clothe him with your robe and fasten your sash around him and hand your authority over to him. He will be a father to those who live in Jerusalem and to the people of Judah. I will place on his shoulder the key to the house of David; what he opens no one can shut, and what he shuts no one can open. I will drive him like a peg into a firm place; he will become a seat of honor for the house of his father.

Isaiah 22, 15-23 

In the biblical narrative, God bestows upon Eliakim the key to the house of David, a position that was previously held by Shebna. This role is characterized by its transferability, allowing for the appointment of successors. By possessing the key to David's kingdom, Eliakim is granted the authority to make decisions that cannot be undone; what he opens remains open, and what he closes remains closed. This denotes that his judgments are final and serve as a representation of the king's will in the king's absence. Eliakim is described as a "father" to Israel, signifying his essential role in guiding and overseeing the nation. This scenario reflects the belief that just as God actively governed in the Old Dispensation, He continues to supervise the administration of His kingdom in the New Dispensation. 

The selection of King Hezekiah's reign by God as the time to disclose the lineage of the chief steward holds considerable significance. This is illustrated in the scripture found in Isaiah 7:14.

Therefore, the Lord Himself will give you a sign:

Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a Son,

and shall call His name Immanuel.

Isaiah 7, 14

The "great sign" described in the book of Revelation (Rev 12:1-5) symbolizes the restoration of the Davidic Messianic kingdom, represented by the Blessed Virgin Mary giving birth to the Messiah King. This event, known as the Nativity of Christ, fulfills numerous Old Testament prophecies regarding restoration, as noted in Micah 5:1-3. In ancient Judaic tradition, King Hezekiah is viewed as a significant prefiguration of the Messiah, more so than other kings from the Davidic line. In a Christian context, Hezekiah’s story bears a closer resemblance to that of Christ. Specifically, God decrees that Hezekiah will become gravely ill. Still, He also promises to raise him up or heal him on the third day, reflecting a key theme of resurrection and divine intervention. 

The resurrection of Hezekiah on the third day positions him as a significant Messianic figure among the kings who succeeded David. His role serves as a precursor to the Messiah, and his kingdom symbolizes the anticipated kingdom of our Lord and King within the lineage of David. Hezekiah had a series of chief stewards, which parallels the succession of chief stewards that Jesus would have. For example, Linus became the first successor to Peter around A.D. 67, as indicated in 2 Timothy 4:1. Additionally, Eliakim was recognized as a “father” to Israel in the kingdom of Judah, similar to how Peter and his successors are regarded as “holy fathers” in the new kingdom or house of Israel, which we understand as the Church. This establishes a biblical foundation for appointing Peter as the steward or vicar of Jesus’ kingdom on Earth. Within this context, we can now explore the subject of 'binding and loosing.'

The authority to "bind and loose" is an essential concept in a biblical context, paralleling Eliakim's power to "open and shut." This authority is explicitly conferred upon Peter by Jesus, distinguishing him from the other Eleven Apostles. In Jewish tradition, the terms "binding and loosing" (Hebrew: asar ve-hittar) were commonly used by religious authorities to describe their legislative and judicial roles. According to John Salza, these terms referred to the ability to "forbid" or "permit," encompassing rules of conduct (halakah) for the community and providing authoritative interpretations of Scripture, oral tradition, and the entirety of the Mosaic law. Essentially, this language captured the Pharisees' jurisdiction over doctrinal and disciplinary issues (The Biblical Basis for the Papacy).

In Acts 15:12-17, Peter demonstrates his authoritative role during the Jerusalem Council, where a significant doctrinal and disciplinary debate arose concerning the necessity of circumcising Gentile converts after they were baptized. During this council, none of the attending apostles challenge or dispute Peter's stance; they remain silent as he addresses the issue. Following Peter's decisive statement—made in his capacity as Christ's chief steward or representative on Earth—both Paul and Barnabas, who are also bishops, offer their support for Peter's declaration. Additionally, James, the Bishop of Jerusalem, who presides over the council, agrees with Peter's resolution.

During Jesus' time, the scribes and Pharisees served as the successors to Moses and were recognized as the appointed religious leaders of Israel. The term “chair of Moses,” mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 23:2-4, represents their authority to interpret and explain the Mosaic law. This chair was typically positioned in the center of a synagogue, where the official teacher of the Law would sit to read the Scriptures and communicate with the congregation. This custom is rooted in Exodus 18, where it is noted that “the next day, Moses sat to judge the people” (v. 13). From this chair, Moses delivered God’s judgments. He explained, “The people come to me to seek the judgment of God. And when any controversy arises among them, they come to me to judge between them, and to show the precepts of God and His laws” (vv. 15-16). The authority and tradition associated with Moses’s chair were passed down through generations to various leaders, including Joshua, the judges or elders, the prophets, and ultimately to the Sanhedrin during Jesus’ era. The chair symbolizes a divine office, indicating that there should be recognized successors in this role (The Biblical Basis for the Papacy).

Jesus himself acknowledged the scribes and Pharisees as legitimate successors to the chair of Moses and taught them with his authority, despite their personal shortcomings and imperfections. Our Lord told the apostles to observe “everything” (panta hosa) they said while sitting on the chair (Mt 23:5-7). And although Jesus harshly criticized them for abusing their divine authority and exercising it in pride and contempt towards the ordinary Jew, notably the marginalized (Mt 23:5-7, 13), he acknowledged their authority to “bind” and “loose” and to “open” or “shut” in the kingdom of God in matters of faith and morals following the Torah.

In the context of his teachings, Jesus employs terminology that resonates with the Jewish audience, signaling the establishment of a new authority structure within his Church. This shift represents a transfer of both power and teaching authority from the Jewish teachers of the Law to the followers of Christ's teachings, as indicated in Galatians 6:2. The New Covenant, which is rooted in grace and charity (agape), supersedes the Old Covenant's Law, which included numerous civil and ceremonial regulations. This transition signifies a replacement of Moses's chair with that of Peter. Similar to Moses, Peter is granted the authority to pronounce divine judgments, as referenced in Exodus 18:15, and he is designated as the official interpreter of God’s Word, as discussed in 2 Peter 3:16.

Furthermore, Peter is bestowed with the power akin to that of Eliakim, who could “open” what none could “shut” (Isa 22:22). Reflecting the authority of the Sanhedrin of his era, Peter is also empowered to “shut the kingdom of heaven” against those who reject his teachings (Mt 23:13). Importantly, it is only Peter and his successors in the papacy who possess the full authority to excommunicate individuals deemed heretics or schismatics, regardless of whether they hold clerical or lay positions within the Church. 

The concept of papal infallibility and the universal primacy of papal authority is supported by biblical texts and ancient traditions within the Church established by Christ. According to scripture, what Peter binds on earth is bound in heaven, and what he looses on earth is loosed in heaven. This notion of binding (estai dedemenon) and loosing (estai lelumenon) is expressed in the passive voice, which can be understood as “shall be bound” or “shall have been bound” (The Biblical Basis for the Papacy). This indicates that heaven ratifies Peter's decisions to bind and loose. Additionally, it is believed that the Holy Spirit guides Peter in making these decisions in accordance with divine revelation. Just as God revealed essential truths regarding salvation to Peter, it is asserted that God will confirm all of Peter's official teachings on salvation, extending this assurance to all his successors in the papal office.

The use of the future tense in the phrase “shall be bound” indicates that the ratification by heaven of Peter’s decisions will take place at the moment he makes them. This ratification is guided by the Holy Spirit, ensuring that Peter's pronouncements are not the result of personal judgment or arbitrary theological opinions. The unique application of the future tense in the passive voice emphasizes that Peter speaks on behalf of heaven, much like when he acknowledged the divinity of Christ. Therefore, the decisions regarding binding and loosing made by Peter are divinely ordained (The Biblical Basis for the Papacy).

Papal infallibility refers to the belief that God protects the Pope, specifically when he speaks ex cathedra, or "from the chair," ensuring that he does not teach error concerning matters of faith and morals. This doctrine holds that the Holy Spirit guarantees the truth of what the Pope declares, as part of divine revelation. According to the teachings of the Church, Jesus promised that the gates of hell would not prevail against it and that the Holy Spirit would guide the Church in all truth (John 16:12-13; cf. 1 Timothy 3:15) until his return. As such, teachings delivered ex cathedra are viewed as definitive and infallible, meant to be accepted by the entire Church without doubt, as they are believed to carry the seal of the Holy Spirit.

Early Sacred Tradition

St. (Pope) Clement of Rome (A.D. 98)

1st Epistle to the Corinthians, 1,59:1

“The church of God which sojourns at Rome to the church of God which sojourns at
Corinth … But if any disobey the words spoken by him through us, let them know
that they will involve themselves in transgression and in no small danger.”

St. Cyprian of Carthage (A.D. 251)

The Unity of the Church, 4-5

“And he says to him again after the resurrection, ‘Feed my sheep.’ It is on him that
he builds the Church, and to him that he entrusts the sheep to feed. And although
he assigns a like power to all the apostles, yet he founded a single Chair, thus
establishing by his own authority the source and hallmark of the (Church’s)
oneness. No doubt the others were all that Peter was, but a primacy is given to
Peter, and it is (thus) made clear that there is but one flock which is to be fed by all
the apostles in common accord. If a man does not hold fast to this oneness of Peter,
does he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he deserts the Chair of Peter upon
whom the Church was built, has he still confidence that he is in the Church? This
unity firmly should we hold and maintain, especially we bishops, presiding in the
Church, in order that we may approve the episcopate itself to be the one and
undivided.”

Council of Sardica, To Pope Julius (A.D. 342)

”The reason for your absence was both honorable and imperative, that the
schismatic wolves might not rob and plunder by stealth nor the heretical dogs bark
madly in the rapid fury nor the very serpent, the devil, discharge his blasphemous
venom. So it seems to us right and altogether fitting that priests of the Lord from
each and every province should report to their head, that is, to the See of Peter, the
Apostle.”

St. Optatus of Mileve (A.D. 367)
The Schism of Donatists, 2:2-3

“You cannot deny that you know that in the city of Rome the Chair was first
conferred on Peter, in which the prince of all the Apostles, Peter, sat…in which
Chair unity should be preserved by all, so that he should now be a schismatic and a
sinner who should set up another Chair against that unique one.”

Council of Ephesus, Session III (A.D. 431)

“Philip, presbyter and legate of the Apostolic See, said: There is no doubt, and in
fact it has been known in all ages, that the holy and most blessed Peter, prince and
head of the apostles, pillar of the faith, and foundation of the Catholic Church,
received the keys of the kingdom from our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour and
Redeemer of the human race, and that to him was given the power of loosing and
binding sins: Our holy and most blessed Pope Celestine the bishop is according to
due order his successor and holds his place…Accordingly the decision of all churches
is firm, for the priests of the eastern and western churches are present…Wherefore
Nestorius knows that he is alienated from the communion of the priests of the
Catholic Church.”

Council of Chalcedon, Session III (A.D. 451)

“Wherefore the most holy and blessed Leo, archbishop of the great and elder Rome,
through us, and through this present most holy synod together with the thrice
blessed and all-glorious Peter the Apostle, who is the rock and foundation of the
Catholic Church, and the foundation of the orthodox faith, hath stripped him of the
episcopate, and hath alienated from him all hieratic worthiness. Therefore let this
most holy and great synod sentence the before mentioned Dioscorus to the canonical
penalties.”

But I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not:
and thou, being once converted, confirm thy brethren.
Luke 22, 32

PAX VOBISCUM

You Are Sanctified, You Are Justified

 Justification & Sanctification

And such some of you were; but you are washed, but you are sanctified,
but you are justified in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ,
and the Spirit of our God.
1 Corinthians 6, 11

Protestants of the classical reformed persuasion mistakenly think Catholics have the wrong idea of what it means to be declared just or righteous by God, having differentiated the Biblical concept of sanctification from justification. They see the person who is declared justified by God as merely being synthetically just, but not inherently made righteous by the power of divine grace that is infused into the human soul through the work of the Holy Spirit; justification, for them, does not constitute a genuine renewal of being and supernatural transformation of the soul that affects interior holiness within the believer. Thus, following the logic of this Protestant conviction, God declares a person just or righteous even when they are sinful, or in a state of sin, only because of their profession of faith in the redemptive merits of Christ (sola Christo) whose personal righteousness is instrumentally imputed to them because of their faith (sola fide).

In this branch of Protestantism, the divine perfection that meets God’s standards can never be attained by us in this life but only in the life of glory that is to come once we have been released from the bonds of the flesh with its warring members. When God declares a person to be righteous or just, therefore, He considers the believer as such only by having come into a right relationship with Him. Justification involves a change of relationship with God, not an ontological change or genuine spiritual renewal in the person. Only by being covered with the extrinsic or alien righteousness of Christ by faith in him can believers be declared justified. Intrinsic righteousness of our own by the sanctifying grace of God through the activity of the Holy Spirit has no bearing in their justification, which is strictly forensic.

However, St. Paul uses the terms justification and sanctification interchangeably, indicating a symbiosis between the two (Heb 13:12; Rom 5:9; 2 Thess 2:13; 1 Cor 6:11). We can better understand how justification and sanctification relate to each other in the Apostle’s theology by examining the metaphysics of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. He postulated that all created things exist on the principle of four causes: efficient, material, formal, and final. Our concern lies with formal causality since the Council of Trent defined sanctification as “the single formal cause (causa formalis) of justification” in the instrumental application of our redemption: “… the single formal cause is the justice of God, not that by which He Himself is just, but that by which He makes us just, that, namely, with which we being endowed by Him, are renewed in the spirit of our mind” (Decree on Justification: Chapter 7).

The formal cause of all things consists of the elements of a conception or thing conceived to be what it is or the idea of a formative principle in cooperation with physical matter. In other words, each thing is composed not only of matter but of form. The form is the principle of determination that accounts for something being what it is (an oak tree or justification). The substantial form of something accounts for its belonging to the species or category to which it belongs.

Justification (a concept or state) could not substantially be what it is or is supposed to be according to God’s design without its principle of determination, namely sanctity. However, neither justification nor sanctification could acquire their forms unless they were determined by the principle of efficient causality, which puts something into effect by the means of an agency for a distinct purpose. In this case, the material cause is grace bestowed by God, the efficient Cause in the forms of both Divine favor and Divine persuasion through the activity of the Holy Spirit, who justifies us by His sanctifying grace (formal cause). Justification and sanctification are the results of the one Divine initiative, and so they function inter-dependently like two sides of a single coin: redemption. Thus, neither state can fruitfully exist on its own in the entire Divine plan of redemption (final cause).

Unless we are justified by first receiving the initial grace of forgiveness, our sanctification through regeneration is irrelevant. And unless we are sanctified, we cannot be justified before God when he personally judges the state of our souls. Anyway, in philosophical jargon, the final cause of something is its end or purpose. Justification is a process whose purpose is to free us from all guilt in our relationship with God and whose end is our predestination for glory. Without its principal determinant – the essence of sanctity – the process of justification could not accomplish its purpose and achieve its end. Unless our righteousness (not Christ’s alien righteousness) surpasses that of the scribes and Pharisees, we will not enter the kingdom of heaven (Mt 5:20).

As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins, in which you
used to live when you followed the ways of this world and of the ruler of
the kingdom of the air, the spirit who is now at work in those who are
disobedient. All of us also lived among them at one time, gratifying the
cravings of our flesh, and following its desires and thoughts. Like the rest
we were deserving by nature of wrath. But because of his great love for
us, God who is rich in mercy, made us alive with Christ even when we were
dead in transgressions — it is by grace you have been saved.
Ephesians 2, 1-4

In Catholic theology, justification is declarative and forensic in some sense or to some degree to the extent God has decreed to really make us righteous in His sight by the means of His efficacious grace and the spiritual gifts of the Holy Spirit produced for us strictly by Christ’s redeeming merits. In other words, we are reconciled to God through the initial grace of forgiveness and justification by no natural merit of our own (Eph 2:8-9). Our renewal in spirit ultimately rests upon the redemption Christ achieved for all humanity strictly by his just merits in his passion and atoning death on the Cross. Christ alone has merited the gift of our salvation in strict justice by Divine decree. Indeed, the entire human race has fallen from a perfect friendship with God. By nature, we are “children of wrath,” being descendants of Adam and Eve (Eph 2:3-5). Neither our natural faculties and capacities nor the law can save us from divine justice since we are prone to fall from God’s grace at some point in our lives because of the effects of original sin.

Only God can take the first step in reconciling us to Him and delivering us from our miserable state of sin and death. And so, God sent His Son to free the world from bondage by paying a ransom for us with his blood and making atonement on our behalf (1 Tim 2:5-6). Yet by his passion and death on the Cross, Christ became the principle of grace and human merit that allows us to actively participate in his merits and, thereby, our redemption through self-denial and spiritual sacrifice, which involves putting to death the deeds of the flesh and doing good works in charity (agape) and grace by the prompting of the Holy Spirit. What God has willed should be brought to fruition with our cooperation and collaboration (subjective redemption). The elect has the privilege to help determine the final destiny of their souls with the help of God’s saving grace in concurrence with what God has decreed and our free will, but only because of Christ’s objective redemption of humanity (Rom 6:6-23).

1 Therefore there is now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. 2 For the
law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set you free from the law of sin and of death.
For what the Law could not do, weak as it was through the flesh, God did: sending His
own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and as an offering for sin, He condemned sin in the
flesh, 4 so that the requirement of the Law might be fulfilled in us, who do not walk
according to the flesh but according to the Spirit… If Christ is in you, though the body is
dead because of sin, yet the spirit is alive because of righteousness. 11 But if the Spirit of
Him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, He who raised Christ Jesus from the
dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through His Spirit who dwells in you. 12 So
then, brethren, we are under obligation, not to the flesh, to live according to the flesh— 13
for if you are living according to the flesh, you must die; but if by the Spirit you are
putting to death the deeds of the body, you will live. 14 For all who are being led by the
Spirit of God, these are sons of God… 16 The Spirit Himself testifies with our spirit
that we are children of God, 17 and if children, heirs also, heirs of God and fellow heirs
with Christ, if indeed we suffer with Him so that we may also be glorified with Him.
Romans 8, 1-17

In Romans 3:28, St. Paul says, “For we hold that a man is justified by faith apart from the works of the law.” What Paul means is that we aren’t justified by observing the external ceremonies of the Old Covenant, such as circumcision, kosher, and ritual washings, after having made contact with unclean things.  St. James would add that good works done in charity and grace are necessary for our salvation since it is by our faith in Christ and devotion to him that we are made just or righteous by fulfilling the spirit of the moral law. Having faith in Christ is primary since it is by having faith in him that we receive the Holy Spirit, who justifies us by making us able to do with a renewed interior disposition what is pleasing and just and fulfill the moral requirements of God’s commandments summed up in the law of Christ given to us in the Gospels.

Once we have been made just by grace through faith in Christ, we must follow the Spirit and live holy lives. The Holy Spirit enables us to live our lives pleasing to God, but not without our cooperation and steadfastness in faith. St. Paul makes it clear in Romans 8:1-17 that the “just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us” provided we “walk not according to the flesh but according to the Spirit.” We are given the chance to choose eternal life with God or eternal separation from God, “for if [we] walk according to the flesh, [we] will die (the second death), but if by the Spirit [we] put to death the deeds of the body, [we] will live.” The apostle adds in V.16 that it’s the Spirit Himself who is bearing witness to our spirit and that we are children of God. We who choose to live by the flesh and disobey God are hostile to Him, while we who choose to live by the Spirit are sons and daughters of our heavenly Father, “and if children, then heirs, heirs of God, and fellow heirs with Christ, provided we suffer with him in order that we may also be glorified in Him.” We must overcome our selfish desires regardless of how difficult they might be if we hope to be reckoned as just and worthy of inheriting our eternal reward in Heaven.

Therefore, as we have borne the image of the earthly,
let us bear also the image of the heavenly.
1 Corinthians 15, 49

So, we are justified by faith and not external works of the Old Dispensation because it is through faith in Christ and our love for Him that we receive the Holy Spirit who enters our lives and enables and empowers us to do what is just in God’s sight. We shall be judged for the works that the Spirit has enabled us to do by giving us the strength to put the deeds of the body to death. Faith in Christ grants us the Holy Spirit to work in our lives so that we fulfill the moral law of Christ (love of God and neighbor) and be truly pleasing to God and judged worthy of being with Him eternally.

St. Paul tells us that we must cleanse ourselves from every defilement of body and spirit and make holiness perfect in the fear of God (2 Cor 7:1). The state of holiness must do with our internal being, originating from God, who is the giver of sanctifying grace by the activity of the Holy Spirit. This holiness isn’t merely a fabrication or a synthetic justification because of the stain of original sin and its effects on our human nature. Concupiscence constantly plagues us, but it isn’t a sin. The truth is that, despite our sinful inclinations, Christ himself is in us by the power of the Holy Spirit. Our Lord’s indwelling brings about an internal transformation that renders us just and pleasing to God, provided that we do not receive His grace in vain (2 Cor 3:15). God is hard at work in us, and He is so powerful that He can actually transform us by re-creating us and renewing our nature through His Holy Spirit (Phil 2:13).

God is not distant and making impersonal, external declarations about us like a judge in a courtroom towards a defendant who needs to be bailed out by someone who can pay his debt for him without asking for anything in return. The view that God merely declares us righteous by covering us up with Christ’s external righteousness while pretending not to notice our inherent unrighteousness denigrates the role of the Holy Spirit in our lives, who continues the work of the resurrected Christ for our justification by infusing His sanctifying grace into our souls and thereby changing our interior being notwithstanding the bumps along the road to heaven because of our wounded nature. The gist of Romans 5:19 is that there isn’t just a change of relational status between God and us but an objective transformation of our human nature, however gradual the process may be. God does not just declare us righteous but makes us righteous by the power of the Holy Spirit working in us. God said, “Let there be light,” and there was real light (Gen 1:3). What God declares to exist is a tangible and objective reality.

Thus, “if we walk in the light as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus Christ His Son cleanses us from all sin” (1 Jn 1:7). Jesus did not come into the world only to make atonement for sin but also to produce the sanctifying grace it takes for us to live holy lives and be righteous as he is righteous in his sacred humanity by applying his righteousness in our lives daily in cooperation with his saving grace and in collaboration with the Holy Spirit (1 Jn 3:7). We are called to actively participate in the removal of guilt and forgiveness of our sins so as to be just in God’s sight. This is what God has declared should be if we hope to be saved in and through the merits of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, who alone and initially has made all this possible for us.

Early Sacred Tradition

“So likewise men, if they do truly progress by faith towards better things, and
receive the Spirit of God, and bring forth the fruit thereof, shall be spiritual, as
being planted in the paradise of God. But if they cast out the Spirit, and remain in their
former condition, desirous of being of the flesh rather than of the Spirit, then it is very justly
said with regard to men of this stamp, ‘That flesh and blood shall not inherit the kingdom of
God… …For when men sleep, the enemy sows the material of tares; and for this cause did
the Lord command His disciples to be on the watch. And again, those persons who are not
bringing forth the fruits of righteousness, and are, as it were, covered over and lost among
brambles, if they use diligence, and receive the word of God as a graft, arrive at the pristine
nature of man–that which was created after the image and likeness of God.”
St. Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 5:10,1
(A.D. 180-190)

“You are mistaken, and are deceived, whosoever you are, that think yourself
rich in this world. Listen to the voice of your Lord in the Apocalypse, rebuking
men of your stamp with righteous reproaches: ‘Thou sayest,’ says He, ‘I am rich,
and increased with goods, and have need of nothing; and knowest not that thou
art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked. I counsel thee to
buy of me gold tried in the fire, that thou mayest be rich; and white raiment, that
thou mayest be clothed, and that the shame of thy nakedness may not appear in
thee; and anoint thine eyes with eye-salve, that thou mayest see.’ You, therefore,
who are rich and wealthy, buy for yourself of Christ gold tried by fire; that you
may be pure gold, with your filth burnt out as if by fire, if you are purged by
almsgiving and righteous works. Buy for yourself white raiment, that you who
had been naked according to Adam, and were before frightful and unseemly,
may be clothed with the white garment of Christ. And you who are a wealthy
and rich matron in Christ’s Church, anoint your eyes, not with the collyrium of
the devil, but with Christ’s eye-salve, that you may be able to attain to see God,
by deserving well of God, both by good works and character.”
St. Cyprian, On Works and Alms,14
(A.D. 254)

“He from the essence of the Father, nor is the Son again Son
according to essence, but in consequence of virtue,
as we who are called sons by grace.”
St. Athanasius, Defense of the Nicene Creed, 22
(A.D. 351)

“You see indeed, then, how the strength of the Lord is cooperative in human
endeavors, so that no one can build without the Lord, no one can preserve
without the Lord, no one build without the Lord, no one can preserve without
the Lord, no one can undertake anything without the Lord.”
St. Ambrose, Commentary on Luke, 2:84
(A.D. 389)

” ‘To declare His righteousness.’ What is declaring of righteousness? Like
declaring of His riches, not only for Him to be rich Himself, but also to make
others rich, or of life, not only that He is Himself living, but also that He makes
the dead to live; and of His power, not only that He is Himself powerful, but also
that He makes the feeble powerful. So also is the declaring of His righteousness
not only that He is Himself righteous, but that He doth also make them that are
filled with the putrefying sores ‘asapentas’ of sin suddenly righteous.”
St. John Chrysostom, Romans, Homily Vll: 24, 25
(A.D. 391)

“All His saints, also, imitate Christ in the pursuit of righteousness; whence the
same apostle, whom we have already quoted, says: ‘Be ye imitators of me, as I am
also of Christ.’ But besides this imitation, His grace works within us our
illumination and justification, by that operation concerning which the same
preacher of His [name] says: ‘Neither is he that planteth anything, nor he that
watereth, but God that giveth the increase.’ For by this grace He engrafts into His
body even baptized infants, who certainly have not yet become able to imitate
any one. As therefore He, in whom all are made alive, besides offering Himself as
an example of righteousness to those who imitate Him, gives also to those who
believe on Him the hidden grace of His Spirit, which He secretly infuses even into infants…”
St. Augustine, On the merits and forgiveness of sins, 1:9
(A.D. 412)

For I tell you, that unless your justice abound more than that of the scribes
and Pharisees, you shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.
Matthew 5, 20

Pax vobiscum